Pompeii is an excellent source of archaeological evidence for slavery. The remains in the town and the surrounding countryside highlight the back breaking drudgery of agricultural work and urban construction. From inscriptions, we can see that slaves not only worked in their master’s businesses; they often ran them. It was also possible for slaves to enjoy a social role, acting as attendants in Roman religious cults.
Roman Slaves in Agriculture
Evidence from rural villas, wine and olive presses and stables suggests that life was much harder for agricultural slaves than for domestic slaves. Farm slaves were only given the barest minimum food and clothing. The nature of the work and the sheer numbers of slaves to compete with also meant that the chance to earn manumission was slim.
Unlike roman town houses, country villas did have slaves living quarters. This is because of the sheer numbers of agricultural slaves and the impracticality of having them sleep in stables and storage areas. The living quarters found demonstrate just how basic life was for farm slaves. They slept in cells with plain walls and earth floors. Windows were slits and the only comfort provided was a niche to accommodate a lamp.
Country villas were also usually equipped with underground prisons for unruly slaves. At the Villa of the Mosaic Columns just outside Pompeii, the skeleton of a slave was found in such a prison chained by both legs. No one had deemed it worth freeing him at the time of the eruption.
Roman Public Slaves
Life could be no easier within the town. Slaves were used in construction and repair work about Pompeii as well as other unpleasant manual tasks such as stoking the furnaces of public bath houses. If they were not involved in hard labour, physically fit male slaves could find themselves sold as gladiators. Good looking slaves of either sex could also find themselves working in the Pompeii’s brothels.
The hopes of manumission for such slaves was little better than their country counterparts. Yet opportunities for a better life did exist for some groups of roman slaves.
Roman Slaves in Business
Certain types of roman slave were highly skilled and worked closely with their masters, becoming a trusted and essential part of his business. The Murecine tablets which were found outside Pompeii at the time of the eruption, relating to business affairs in Puteoli. The records were written by a slave on behalf of his illiterate master.
Even if a master was able to write, it was common for slaves to keep accounts and records on his behalf. One slave, sold by his master to the Pompeian banker Lucius Caecilius in 54AD actually wrote out the receipt for his own sale. Such highly skilled slaves were well placed to be able to earn their freedom.
Although it was usual for freedmen to act as their old master’s business representatives, roman slaves could also manage their master’s businesses. Some even had their own seals inscribed with their names so that they could act on their master’s behalf. Inscriptions relating to the fish sauce business of a man called Scarus in Pompeii shows that one of his many manufacturing workshops was run by a female slave called Eutyche. Likewise, a property magnate called Alleius Nigidius Maius also used his slave Primus as an agent for rentals and sales.
Slaves and Roman Religion
Slaves could not take part in the main cults of civic roman religion. However, various minor cults were open to them.
One example was the cult of Mercury and Maia which later became dominated by the genius of the emperor Augustus. Inscribed plaques for the years 14-2BC show that slaves from important families were a major part of the cult in these years, acting as assistants to the freedmen who officiated. From 3AD, they were, they were expected to set up a statue each year.
Another cult which encouraged slave participation was the cult of the District Lares. The Lares were ancient roman deities, each responsible for an area of land. They acted as the guardian spirits of each district. Their shrines were set up on street corners. Evidence from a shrine on the Street of Abundance shows that slaves did not just assist freedmen in the cult; they could also be presidents of the cult.
Roles in these Roman cults were usually allocated to slaves marked for freedom. The responsibilities and expectations of cult life were a way of preparing the slaves for their new roles as freedmen.
Sources
Pompeii: A Sourcebook. (2004) Alison E Cooley and M.G.L Cooley. Routledge: London and New York
The World of Pompeii: (2007) Ed. John J Dobbins and Pedar W Foss. Routledge. London and New York.
Natasha Sheldon - A writer since 2000, Natasha Sheldon holds a BA Hons in ancient history and archaeology and MA in ancient history and historiography.
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